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 http://abroaine.blogfa.com/cat-13.aspx

مراجعه کنید. مطالب جدید از این به بعد اینجا هستند.

سلام.

مدتی فرصت به روز کردن را ندارم تا اوایل اسفند

باغ سازی ژاپن

باغ های اولیه ساده و از مجموعه آب گیرها,جزیره ها, نهرها

به جای تعدد زیاد گل و گیاه, استفادخ سمبلیک از عوامل طبیعی و هر قسمت از باغ نمایانگر گوشه ایی از طبیعت

استفاده از سنگ

نوعی باغسازی ارگانیگ

استفاده از تپه ماهور مصنوعی

درختان تزیینی

قسمت های متنوع که مهمترین قسمت آن باغ های سنگی است. ژاپنی ها سنگ را موضوعی جاودانه و نشان جاودانگی می دانستند. احترام به سنگ به عنوان سمبل طبیعت امکان می دهد باغ های زیبا با بهره گیری از سنگ های مختلف شکل بگیرد.

سنگ ها بیان استعلری لز طبیعت, قطعه سنگ بزرگ خود طبیعت, تخت سنگ خوابیده نشانه ژاپن است که اغلب بر روی سنگ ریزه قرار می گیرد. سنگ ریزه نشانه آب, شیار بین سنگ ریزه ها نشانه رودخانه, قلوه سنگ نشانه افسانه های ملی است و هر کس خود را به چهره سنگی می بیند. باغ ها مکانی مقدس هستند.

عقاید مذهب شین تو

1-      جان باوری

2-     نیاپرستی

3-    امپراطور فرزند آسمان (از ایران به بقیه کشورها رفته است)

باغ ها منظم و وسیع

گیاهان با نظم

م/باغ های شهر ممنوع

هنری فیلد

انسان آریایی عصر دیرینه سنگی در غرب ایران گندم کاشته است که آنرا        گویند.

خشایار شاه

هنگام سفر به سارد درخت چناری را به زینت آلات طلا آراست.

هامفری رپتون

کشت متعادلی از درختان را توصیه می کند. چمن کاری زیاد, کاهش انبوه درخت و درختچه

روبینسون

مخترع حاشیه گلکاری در باغ و پارک

گرترود جکیل

معمار آگاه در مورد چگونگی کاربرد مجسمه در باغ, پله های پوشیده و داربست گل

ویلیام کنت

در سال 1685 فکر ایجاد پرچین در اطراف باغ بر مبنای فلسفه همه طبیعت یک باغ است در منطقه ایی به نام روسام در اکسفورد پدید آمد

باغ های رومی

ترکیبی از مجموعه درختان تزیینی و پوشش های از مورد و شمشاد الیکس

پارک کلاسیک ایتالیایی

حداکثر استفاده از حداقل مساحت

باغ لاگامبرایا

حاشیه زیبای گلکاری همراه با پرچین

در جنگ جهانی دوم به تصرف آلمان ها درآمد

باغ باروک

در دامنه یک تپه

باغ قصر الحمرا

زیباترین باغ پس از اسلام

نحوه آبرسانی با نی و کانال

اطاق هایی مانند تراسهای سر پوشیده با گیاهان سبز نحوه ارتیاط فضای داخل و خارج را مشخس می کند

وجود آب نما و فواره در بیرون و داخل دلیل بارزی از ورود طبیعت به داخل است

سبک به کار رفته در این باغ کاملا ایده شرقی دارد

هنر باغ سازی از قرن 13 رو به تکامل نهاد

باغسازی انگلستان

در طرح های سنتی و قدیمی از خطای چشم در مورد ترکیب رنگها, کاشت درختان و درختچه ها با نظم ردیفی پشت سر هم, ایجاد تپه ماهور, برکه یا دریاچه مصنوعی

نخستین باغ شهر لچ ورث 1904

باغسازی فرانسه

امروزه در باغچه های جدید اشکال هندسی, خیابان های منظم متقاطع یا عیر هندسی مد نظر است

استفاده از مجسمه, گلدان سنگی در اطراف باغ و خیابان. در قرون وسطی ساده اما در رنسانس متنوع و غنی

آندره لونوتر:

                 باغ ولو وی کنت

                تغییر در باغ توئیلری

            باغ ورسای (دوران باروک)

ژاک بارودری:

در باغ لوکرامبورک محورسازی را بنحوی که منتهی به محور ساختمان شود تطبیق داده و در اطراف ساختمان تراس ایجاد کرده

 کلود مله

آندره موله: تکیه بر باغ های محوری و پیشنهاد به ختم مجسمه یا آب نمای کوچک در قسمت تقاطع منحنی خیابان فرعی به اصلی

از قرن 17 اروپا به باغسازی اسلامی علاقه مند شد.

باغ فین کاشان

مشهور بعلت سرو

چشمه سلیمانیه در نزدیکی باغ

اولین کاخ سازی در باغ در دوره آل بویه

تا دوره صفوی عمومی

در دوره صفوی مختص پادشاه

در دوره قاجار تخصصی و بعد از قتل امیر کبیر استفاده نشد

در 1313 (پهلوی اول) بازسازی شد

باغ دلگشا

منصوب به کریم خان

باغ هفت تن و چهل تن

کوشک در انتها

کوچک و ساده

باغ جهان نما(وکیل-نو) شیراز

ساخته کریم خان

کوشم 8 ضلعی

باغ تخت شیراز(بهشت)

قرن 5 بنای اولیه

استخر در پایین ترین قسمت

باغ ارم شیراز

ساختمان قاجاری

محبوبیت بعلت سروها

باغ شاه

قرن 5 ه.ق

باغ عفیف آباد(گلشن) شیراز

اواخر قرن 13-قاجاریه

کوشک متفاوت-باز نیست

باغ خندق

باغ زعفرانی

باغ ناری

باغ بهجت آباد

باغ ایل گلی

استخر بزرگ

وسط استخر جزیره

شاید قاجاری

باغ فتح آباد تبریز

باغ هشت بهشت(شمال) تبریز

مجموعه باغ های بهشهر(اشرف)

صاحب الزمان

حرم

خلوت

شمال

چشمه

تپه

چهل ستون

زیتون

عباس آباد

باغ صفی آباد: در 1 کیلومتری بهشهر

باغ فرح آباد ساری

باغ های سمرقند

ساخته تیمور لنگ

جهان نما

تخت قراچه

دراز

قراتوپه

ارم

دلگشا

گل سرخ

بلند

بهشت

شمال

نقش جهان

چنار

نوروزی: توسط الغ بیک فرزند شاهرخ

جهان آرا: توسط حسین بایقرا

باغ های کابل

باغ وفا(چهارباغ): در نزدیکی کابل توسط بابر

باغ کلان: در کابل

باغ بنفشه

پادشاهی

a Japanese architect, and winner of the 1987 Pritzker Prize for architecture. He was one of the most significant architects of the 20th century, combining traditional Japanese styles with modernism, and designed major buildings on five continents.

In 1913, Tange was born in Sakai, Osaka. In 1935, Tange entered the Architecture Department of the University of Tokyo, and became an assistant professor there in 1946.

In 1949, he won the competition to re-design Hiroshima, following its atomic bombing in 1945. His design for the Peace Park and Peace Memorial owes much to Le Corbusier, and is often called "the spiritual core of the city"^{[citation needed]}. One reason Tange gave for applying for the job was that as a secondary student he had studied in the city.

Tange won international fame for his design for the gymnasium for the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo. His Pritzker Prize citation described it as "among the most beautiful buildings of the 20th century".

He was also known for his "Tokyo Plan" of 1960, which proposed a radical redesign of the city. Although not fully implemented, it influenced architects worldwide.

In 2005, his funeral was held in one of his works, Tokyo Cathedral

further reading:

www.ktaweb.com

www.pritzkerprize.com/tange.htm

www.greatbuildings.com/architects/Kenzo_Tange.html

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenzo_Tange

Frank Gehry considers the Walt Disney Concert Hall to be his first major project in his own home town. No stranger to music, he has a long association with the Los Angeles Philharmonic Orchestra, having worked to improve the acoustics of the Hollywood Bowl. He also designed the Concord Amphitheatre in northern California, and yet another much earlier in his career in Columbia, Maryland, the Merriweather Post Pavilion of Music. 

The Museum of Contemporary Art selected him to convert an old warehouse into its Temporary Contemporary exhibition space while the permanent museum was being built. It has received high praise, and remains in use today. On a much smaller scale, but equally as effective, Gehry remodeled what was once an ice warehouse in Santa Monica, adding some other buildings to the site, into a combination art museum/retail and office complex. 

The belief that "architecture is art" has been a part of Frank Gehry's being for as long as he can remember. In fact, when asked if he had any mentors or idols in the history of architecture, his reply was to pick up a Brancusi photograph on his desk, saying, "Actually, I tend to think more in terms of artists like this. He has had more influence on my work than most architects. In fact, someone suggested that my skyscraper that won a New York competition looked like a Brancusi sculpture. I could name Alvar Aalto from the architecture world as someone for whom I have great respect, and of course, Philip Johnson." 

Born in Canada in 1929, Gehry has become a naturalized U.S. citizen. In 1954, he graduated from USC and began work full time with Victor Gruen Associates, where he had been apprenticing part-time while still in school. After a year in the army, he was admitted to Harvard Graduate School of Design to study urban planning. When he returned to Los Angeles, he briefly worked for Pereira and Luckman, then rejoined Gruen where he stayed until 1960. 

In 1961, Gehry and family, which by now included two daughters, moved to Paris where he worked in the office of Andre Remondet. His French education in Canada was an enormous help. During that year of living in Europe, he studied works by LeCorbusier, Balthasar Neumann, and was attracted by the French Roman churches. In 1962, he returned to Los Angeles, setting up his own firm. 

He has said on more than one occasion, "Personally, I hate chain link. I got involved with it because it was inevitably being used around my buildings. If you can't beat 'em, join 'em." 

A project in 1979 illustrates his use of chain-link fencing in the construction of the Cabrillo Marine Museum, a 20,000 square foot compound of buildings which he "laced together" with chain-link fencing. These "shadow structures" as Gehry calls them, bind together the parts of the museum. 

Santa Monica Place has one outside wall, nearly 300 feet long and six stories tall, hung with a curtain of chain link, and then a second layer over it in a different color spells out the name of the mall. 

For a time, Gehry's work used "unfinished" qualities as a part of the design. As Paul Goldberger, New York Times Architecture Critic described it, "Mr. Gehry's architecture is known for its reliance on harsh, unfinished materials and its juxtaposition of simple, almost primal, geometric forms...(His) work is vastly more intelligent and controlled than it sounds to the uninitiated; he is an architect of immense gifts who dances on the line separating architecture from art but who manages never to let himself fall." 

One building that  is part of the touring Pritzker exhibition is the Chiat/Day Office for Venice, California. The proposed three story, 75,000 square foot building will sit above three underground levels of parking for 300 cars. The entry to the building is through a pair of 45' tall binoculars designed by Oldenburg and his wife Coosje van Bruggen. The shafts of the binoculars will contain an office and a library. 

A guest house he designed in 1983 for a home in Wayzata, Minnesota that had been designed by Philip Johnson in 1952 proved a challenge that critics agree Gehry met and conquered. The guest house is actually a grouping of one-room buildings that appear as a collection of sculptural pieces. 

He did a monument to mark the centennial of the Sheet Metal Workers' International Association. It was built by 600 volunteers from the union in the cavernous central hall of the National Building Museum (formerly known as the Pension Building) in Washington, D.C. The 65 foot high construction was galvanized stainless steel, anodized aluminum, brass and copper. 

There is an interesting note regarding a statement Gehry prepared for the 1980 edition of "Contemporary Architects," Gehry states, "I approach each building as a sculptural object, a spatial container, a space with light and air, a response to context and appropriateness of feeling and spirit. To this container, this sculpture, the user brings his baggage, his program, and interacts with it to accommodate his needs. If he can't do that, I've failed." 

keywords:

further reading:

www.frank-gehry.com

http://www.artcyclopedia.com/artists/gehry_frank.html

www.pritzkerprize.com/gehry.htm

www.greatbuildings.com/architects/Frank_Gehry.html

sun3.lib.uci.edu/~scctr/hri/postmodern/gehry.html

“For the first time in history it is now possible to take care of everybody at a higher standard of living than any have ever known.
Only ten years ago the ‘more with less’ technology reached the point where this could be done. All humanity now has the option to become enduringly successful.”

This confident assertion was made in 1980 by the late R. Buckminster Fuller–inventor, architect, engineer, mathematician, poet and cosmologist. As early as 1959, Newsweek reported that Fuller predicted the conquest of poverty by the year 2000.

In 1977, almost twenty years later, the National Academy of Sciences confirmed Fuller’s prediction. Their World Food and Nutrition Study, prepared by 1,500 scientists, concluded, “If there is the political will in this country and abroad... it should be possible to overcome the worst aspects of widespread hunger and malnutrition within one generation.”
Even with tragedies like Ethiopia and Somalia, it is becoming clear that, as Fuller predicted, we have arrived at the possibility of eliminating hunger and poverty in all the world within our lifetime

http://www.bfi.org/our_programs/who_is_buckminster_fuller

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buckminster_Fuller

www.worldtrans.org/whole/bucky.html

www.netaxs.com/people/cjf/fuller-faq.html

www.wnet.org/bucky.cgi

www.hfmgv.org/dymaxion

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaos_theory

In mathematics and physics, chaos theory describes the behavior of certain nonlinear dynamical systems that under certain conditions exhibit a phenomenon known as chaosbutterfly effect). As a result of this sensitivity, the behavior of systems that exhibit chaos appears to be random, exhibiting an exponential error dispersion, even though the system is deterministic in the sense that it is well defined and contains no random parameters. Examples of such systems include the atmosphere, the solar system, plate tectonics, turbulent fluids, economics, population growth and the vast variety of dissipative structures.. Among the characteristics of chaotic systems, described below, is the sensitivity to initial conditions (popularly referred to as the

Systems that exhibit mathematical chaos are deterministic and thus orderly in some sense; this technical use of the word chaos is at odds with common parlance, which suggests complete disorder. (See the article on mythological chaos for a discussion of the origin of the word in mythology, and other uses.) A related field of physics called quantum chaos theory studies non-deterministic systems that follow the laws of quantum mechanics.

As well as being orderly in the sense of being deterministic, chaotic systems usually have well defined statistics. For example, the Lorenz system pictured is chaotic, but has a clearly defined structure. Weather is chaotic, but its statistics—climate—is not.

Chaotic dynamics

For a dynamical system to be classified as chaotic, most scientists will agree that it must have the following properties:

• it must be sensitive to initial conditions,
• it must be topologically mixingperiodic orbitsdensebutterfly effect", suggesting that the flapping of a butterfly's wings over Tokyo might create tiny changes in the atmosphere, which could over time cause a tornado to occur over Texas. The flapping wing represents a small change in the initial condition of the system, which causes a chain of events leading to large-scale phenomena. Had the butterfly not flapped its wings, the trajectory of the system might have been vastly different., and
• its must be .

Sensitivity to initial conditions means that each point in such a system is arbitrarily closely approximated by other points with significantly different future trajectories. Thus, an arbitrarily small perturbation of the current trajectory may lead to significantly different future behavior.

Sensitivity to initial conditions is popularly known as the "

Sensitivity to initial conditions is often confused with chaos in popular accounts. It can also be a subtle property, since it depends on a choice of metric, or the notion of distance in the phase space of the system. For example, consider the simple dynamical system produced by repeatedly doubling an initial value (defined by the mapping on the real line from x to 2x). This system has sensitive dependence on initial conditions everywhere, since any pair of nearby points will eventually become widely separated. However, it has extremely simple behavior, as all points except 0 tend to infinity. If instead we use the bounded metric on the line obtained by adding the point at infinity and viewing the result as a circle, the system no longer is sensitive to initial conditions. For this reason, in defining chaos, attention is normally restricted to systems with bounded metrics, or closed, bounded invariant subsets of unbounded systems.

Even for bounded systems, sensitivity to initial conditions is not identical with chaos. For example, consider the two-dimensional torus described by a pair of angles (x,y), each ranging between zero and 2π. Define a mapping that takes any point (x,y) to (2x, y + a), where a is any number such that a/2π is irrational. Because of the doubling in the first coordinate, the mapping exhibits sensitive dependence on initial conditions. However, because of the irrational rotation in the second coordinate, there are no periodic orbits, and hence the mapping is not chaotic according to the definition above.

Topologically mixing means that the system will evolve over time so that any given region or open set of its phase space will eventually overlap with any other given region. Here, "mixing" is really meant to correspond to the standard intuition: the mixing of colored dyes or fluids is an example of a chaotic system

Attractors

Some dynamical systems are chaotic everywhere (see e.g. Anosov diffeomorphisms) but in many cases chaotic behavior is found only in a subset of phase space. The cases of most interest arise when the chaotic behavior takes place on an attractor, since then a large set of initial conditions will lead to orbits that converge to this chaotic region.

An easy way to visualize a chaotic attractor is to start with a point in the basin of attraction of the attractor, and then simply plot its subsequent orbit. Because of the topological transitivity condition, this is likely to produce a picture of the entire final attractor.

For instance, in a system describing a pendulum, the phase space might be two-dimensional, consisting of information about position and velocity. One might plot the position of a pendulum against its velocity. A pendulum at rest will be plotted as a point, and one in periodic motion will be plotted as a simple closed curve. When such a plot forms a closed curve, the curve is called an orbit. Our pendulum has an infinite number of such orbits, forming a pencil of nested ellipses about the origin.

Strange attractors

While most of the motion types mentioned above give rise to very simple attractors, such as points and circle-like curves called limit cyclesstrange attractorsLorenz weather system gives rise to the famous Lorenz attractor. The Lorenz attractor is perhaps one of the best-known chaotic system diagrams, probably because not only was it one of the first, but it is one of the most complex and as such gives rise to a very interesting pattern which looks like the wings of a butterfly. Another such attractor is the Rössler Map, which experiences period-two doubling route to chaos, like the logistic map., chaotic motion gives rise to what are known as , attractors that can have great detail and complexity. For instance, a simple three-dimensional model of the

Strange attractors occur in both continuous dynamical systems (such as the Lorenz system) and in some discrete systems (such as the Hénon map). Other discrete dynamical systems have a repelling structure called a Julia set which forms at the boundary between basins of attraction of fixed points - Julia sets can be thought of as strange repellers. Both strange attractors and Julia sets typically have a fractal structure.

The Poincaré-Bendixson theorem shows that a strange attractor can only arise in a continuous dynamical system if it has three or more dimensions. However, no such restriction applies to discrete systems, which can exhibit strange attractors in two or even one dimensional systems.

The initial conditions of three or more bodies interacting through gravitational attraction (see the n-body problem) can be arranged to produce chaotic motion

History

The first discoverer of chaos can plausibly be argued to be Jacques Hadamard, who in 1898 published an influential study of the chaotic motion of a free particle gliding frictionlessly on a surface of constant negative curvature. In the system studied, Hadamard's billiards, Hadamard was able to show that all trajectories are unstable, in that all particle trajectories diverge exponentially from one another, with a positive Lyapunov exponent.

In the early 1900s, Henri Poincaré while studying the three-body problem, found that there can be orbits which are nonperiodic, and yet not forever increasing nor approaching a fixed point. Much of the early theory was developed almost entirely by mathematicians, under the name of ergodic theory. Later studies, also on the topic of nonlinear differential equations, were carried out by G.D. Birkhoff, A.N. Kolmogorov, M.L. Cartwright, J.E. Littlewood, and Stephen Smale. Except for Smale, these studies were all directly inspired by physics: the three-body problem in the case of Birkhoff, turbulence and astronomical problems in the case of Kolmogorov, and radio engineering in the case of Cartwright and Littlewood. Although chaotic planetary motion had not been observed, experimentalists had encountered turbulence in fluid motion and nonperiodic oscillation in radio circuits without the benefit of a theory to explain what they were seeing.

Chaos theory progressed more rapidly after mid-century, when it first became evident for some scientists that linear theory, the prevailing system theory at that time, simply could not explain the observed behavior of certain experiments like that of the logistic map. The main catalyst for the development of chaos theory was the electronic computer. Much of the mathematics of chaos theory involves the repeated iteration of simple mathematical formulas, which would be impractical to do by hand. Electronic computers made these repeated calculations practical. One of the earliest electronic digital computers, ENIAC, was used to run simple weather forecasting models.

An early pioneer of the theory was Edward Lorenz whose interest in chaos came about accidentally through his work on weather prediction in 1961. Lorenz was using a basic computer, a Royal McBee LGP-30, to run his weather simulation. He wanted to see a sequence of data again and to save time he started the simulation in the middle of its course. He was able to do this by entering a printout of the data corresponding to conditions in the middle of his simulation which he had calculated last time.

To his surprise the weather that the machine began to predict was completely different from the weather calculated before. Lorenz tracked this down to the computer printout. The printout rounded variables off to a 3-digit number, but the computer worked with 6-digit numbers. This difference is tiny and the consensus at the time would have been that it should have had practically no effect. However Lorenz had discovered that small changes in initial conditions produced large changes in the long-term outcome.

Yoshisuke Ueda independently identified a chaotic phenomenon as such by using an analog computer on November 27, 1961. The chaos exhibited by an analog computer is truly a natural phenomenon, in contrast with those discovered by a digital computer. Ueda's supervising professor, Hayashi, did not believe in chaos throughout his life, and thus he prohibited Ueda from publishing his findings until 1970.

The term chaos as used in mathematics was coined by the applied mathematician James A. Yorke.

The availability of cheaper, more powerful computers broadens the applicability of chaos theory. Currently, chaos theory continues to be a very active area of research.

Mathematical theory

Sarkovskii's theorem is the basis of the Li and Yorke (1975) proof that any one-dimensional system which exhibits a regular cycle of period three will also display regular cycles of every other length as well as completely chaotic orbits.

Mathematicians have devised many additional ways to make quantitative statements about chaotic systems. These include: fractal dimension of the attractor, Lyapunov exponents, recurrence plots, Poincaré maps, bifurcation diagrams, Transfer operator

Minimum complexity of a chaotic system

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestalt_psychology

http://gestalttheory.net/

http://coe.sdsu.edu/eet/articles/gestalt/index.htm

http://chd.gse.gmu.edu/immersion/knowledgebase/strategies/cognitivism/gestalt...

psychology (also Gestalt theory of the Berlin School) is a theory of mind and brain that proposes that the operational principle of the brain is holistic, parallel, and analog, with self-organizing tendencies. The classic Gestalt example is a soap bubble, whose spherical shape (its Gestalt) is not defined by a rigid template, or a mathematical formula, but rather it emerges spontaneously by the parallel action of surface tension acting at all points in the surface simultaneously. This is in contrast to the "atomistic" principle of operation of the digital computer, where every computation is broken down into a sequence of simple steps, each of which is computed independently of the problem as a whole. The Gestalt effect refers to the form-forming capability of our senses, particularly with respect to the visual recognition of figures and whole forms instead of just a collection of simple lines and curves.

Properties

The key properties of Gestalt systems are emergence, reification, multistability, and invariance.

Emergence

Emergence is demonstrated by the perception of the Dog Picture, which depicts a Dalmatian dog sniffing the ground in the shade of overhanging trees. The dog is not recognized by first identifying its parts (feet, ears, nose, tail, etc.), and then inferring the dog from those component parts. Instead, the dog is perceived as a whole, all at once.

Reification

Reification is the constructive or generative aspect of perception, by which the experienced percept contains more explicit spatial information than the sensory stimulus on which it is based.

For instance, a triangle will be perceived in picture A, although no triangle has actually been drawn. In pictures B and D the eye will recognise disparate shapes as "belonging" to a single shape, in C a complete three-dimensional shape is seen, where in actuality no such thing is drawn.

Multistability

Multistability (or Multistable perception) is the tendency of ambiguous perceptual experiences to pop back and forth unstably between two or more alternative interpretations. This is seen for example in the Necker cube, and in Rubin's Figure / Vase illusion shown to the right. Other examples include the 'three-pronged widget' and artist M.C. Escher's artwork and the appearance of flashing marquee lights moving first one direction and then suddenly the other.

Invariance

Invariance is the property of perception whereby simple geometrical objects are recognized independent of rotation, translation, and scale; as well as several other variations such as elastic deformations, different lighting, and different component features. For example, the objects in A in the figure are all immediately recognized as the same basic shape, which are immediately distinguishable from the forms in B. They are even recognized despite perspective and elastic deformations as in C, and when depicted using different graphic elements as in D.

Web-based forums and email providers rely on invariance of human perception to prevent automated bots from exploiting the services. A CAPTCHA test presents a distorted image of letters and numbers, not readable by computers, and prompts user to correctly type the string.

Emergence, reification, multistability, and invariance are not separable modules to be modeled individually, but they are different aspects of a single unified dynamic mechanism.

The investigations developed at the beginning of the 20th century, based on traditional scientific methodology, divided the object of study into a set of elements that could be analyzed separately with the objective of reducing the complexity of this object. Contrary to this methodology, the school of Gestalt practiced a series of theoretical and methodological principles that attempted to redefine the approach to psychological research.

The theoretical principles are the following:

• Principle of Totality - The conscious experience must be considered globally (by taking into account all the physical and mental aspects of the individual simultaneously) because the nature of the mind demands that each component be considered as part of a system of dynamic relationships.
• Principle of psychophysicalisomorphism - A correlation exists between conscious experience and cerebral activity.  

Based on the principles above the following methodological principles are defined:

• Phenomenon Experimental Analysis - In relation to the Totality Principle any psychological research should take as a starting point phenomena and not be solely focused on sensory qualities.
• Biotic Experiment - The School of Gestalt established a need to conduct real experiments which sharply contrasted with and opposed classic laboratory experiments. This signified experimenting in natural situations, developed in real conditions, in which it would be possible to reproduce, with higher fidelity, what would be habitual for a subject.

Prägnanz

The most basic rule of gestalt is the law of prägnanz. This law says that we try to experience things in as good a gestalt way as possible. In this sense, "good" can mean several things, such as regular, orderly, simplistic, symmetrical, etc. The other gestalt laws are:

• Law of Closure - Our mind adds missing elements to complete a figure.
• Law of Similarity - Our mind groups similar elements to an entity. The similarity depends on relationships constructed about form, color, size and brightness of the elements.
• Law of Proximity - Regional or chronological closeness of elements are grouped by our mind and seen as belonging together.
• Law of Symmetry - Symmetrical images are seen as belonging together regardless of their distance.
• Law of Continuity - The mind continues a pattern, even after it stops.
• Law of Common Fate - Elements with the same moving direction are seen as a unit

Figure-ground minds have an innate tendency to perceive one aspect of an event as the figure or foreground and the other as the ground or the background.

Under the gestalt theory, these laws not only apply to images, but to thought processes, memories, and our understanding of time.

Examples of the Gestalt experience include the perception of an incomplete circle as a whole or a pattern of dots as a shape - the mind completes the missing pieces through extrapolation. Studies also indicate that simple elements/compositions where the meaning is directly perceived do not offer as much a challenge to the mind as complex ones and hence the latter are preferred over the former.

http://www.iep.utm.edu/d/deleuze.htm

http://www.artandculture.com/cgi-bin/WebObjects/ACLive.woa/wa/artist?id=75

http://www.imaginet.fr/deleuze/

Gilles Deleuze, an important figure in post-war French philosophy, began his career with a number of idiosyncratic yet rigorous historical studies of figures outside of the continental tradition in vogue at the time, before writing some of the more infamous texts of the period, in particular, Anti-Oedipus and A Thousand Plateaus. These texts collaborative works with radical psychoanalyst Félix Guattari. Deleuze is a key figure in what is known as 'postmodern' thought. Considering himself an empiricist and a vitalist, his body of work, which rests upon concepts such as multiplicity, constructivism, difference and desire, stands at a substantial remove from the main traditions of 20th century Continental thought. His thought locates him as an influential figure in present-day considerations of society, creativity and subjectivity. Deleuze also published widely on literature, psychoanalysis and art.

Deleuze's whole intellectual trajectory can be traced by his shifting relationship to the history of philosophy. While in later years, he became quite critical of both the style of thought implied in narrow reproductions of past thinkers and the institutional pressures to think on this basis, Deleuze never lost any enthusiasm for writing books about other philosophers, if in a new way. Most of his publications contain the name of another philosopher as part of the title: Hume, Kant, Spinoza, Nietzsche, Bergson, Leibniz, Foucault.

Deleuze expresses two main problems with the traditional style and institutional location of the history of philosophy. The first concerns a politics of the tradition:

The history of philosophy has always been the agent of power in philosophy, and even in thought. It has played the repressors role: how can you think without having read Plato, Descartes, Kant and Heidegger, and so-and-so's book about them? A formidable school of intimidation which manufactures specialists in thought - but which also makes those who stay outside conform all the more to this specialism which they despise. An image of thought called philosophy has been formed historically and it effectively stops people from thinking. (D 13)

This hegemony of thought recurrently comes under attack later in Deleuze's career, notably in What is Philosophy? This criticism also sits well with a general theme throughout his writings, which is the immediate politicisation of all thought. Philosophy and its history is not separated from the fortunes of the wider world, for Deleuze, but intimately linked to it, and to the forces at work there.

The second criticism directed at the traditional style of history of philosophy, the construction of specialists and expertise, leads directly to the foremost positive aspect of Deleuze's particular method: "What we should in fact do, is stop allowing philosophers to reflect 'on' things. The philosopher creates, he doesn't reflect." (N122) And this creation, with regard to other writers, takes the form of a portrait:

The history of philosophy isn't a particularly reflective discipline. It's rather like portraiture in painting. Producing mental, conceptual portraits. As in painting, you have to create a likeness, but in a different material: the likeness is something you have to produce, rather than a way of reproducing anything (which comes down to just repeating what a philosopher says). (N 136)

Perhaps such a method does not seem extremely creative, or perhaps only in a relatively passive sense. For Deleuze, however, the history of philosophy also embraces a much more active, constructive sense. Each reading of a philosopher, an artist, a writer should be undertaken, Deleuze tells us, in order to provide an impetus for creating new concepts that do not pre-exist (DR vii).

Thus the works that Deleuze studies are seen by him as inspirational, but also as a resource, from which the philosopher can gather the concepts that seem the most useful and give them a new life, along with the force to develop new, non-preexistent concepts.

In an important sense, Deleuze's whole modus operandi is based in this revaluation of the role of other thinkers, and the means by which one can use them: each of his books either centers around one philosopher, or derives much of its texture from references to others. In any case, new concepts are derived from others' works, or old ones are recreated or 'awakened', and put to a new service.